What Word Is Used To Describe Knowledge About The Universe And The Method Of Obtaining The Knowledge

Familiarity, awareness, or agreement of information or skills

Knowledge is a familiarity or awareness, of someone or something, such as facts (descriptive noesis), skills (procedural knowledge), or objects (acquaintance knowledge), ofttimes contributing to understanding. Past most accounts, knowledge can exist produced in many different ways and from many sources, including but not limited to perception, reason, retentiveness, testimony, scientific inquiry, education, and do. The philosophical written report of knowledge is chosen epistemology.

The term "noesis" tin can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a discipline. It can be implicit (every bit with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); formal or informal; systematic or particular.^[one] The philosopher Plato argued that there was a distinction between knowledge and truthful belief in the Theaetetus, leading many to attribute to him a definition of noesis as "justified truthful conventionalities".^{[2] [3]} The difficulties with this definition raised by the Gettier trouble have been the subject of extensive debate in epistemology for more than than half a century.^[iv]

Theories of knowledge

The eventual demarcation of philosophy from science was made possible by the notion that philosophy's core was "theory of knowledge," a theory singled-out from the sciences because it was their foundation... Without this idea of a "theory of noesis," it is hard to imagine what "philosophy" could take been in the age of modern science.

Knowledge is the primary field of study of the field of epistemology, which studies what nosotros know, how we come to know it, and what it means to know something.^[v] Defining cognition is an of import aspect of epistemology, because it does not suffice to have a belief; i must also have skilful reasons for that conventionalities, because otherwise in that location would exist no reason to adopt one belief over another.

The definition of knowledge is a matter of ongoing debate among epistemologists. The classical definition, described merely not ultimately endorsed by Plato,^[6] specifies that a statement must meet three criteria in guild to exist considered knowledge: it must be justified, truthful, and believed. Some Epistemologists today hold that these conditions are not sufficient, as various Gettier cases are idea to demonstrate. There are a number of culling definitions which accept been proposed, including Robert Nozick'due south proposal that all instances of noesis must 'track the truth' and Simon Blackburn's proposal that those who have a justified true conventionalities 'through a defect, flaw, or failure' fail to have knowledge. Richard Kirkham suggests that our definition of knowledge requires that the evidence for the belief necessitates its truth.^[7]

In contrast to this arroyo, Ludwig Wittgenstein observed, following Moore's paradox, that 1 can say "He believes it, but it isn't so," just not "He knows it, just it isn't so."^[8] He goes on to argue that these do not correspond to distinct mental states, but rather to singled-out ways of talking about conviction. What is unlike here is not the mental state of the speaker, merely the activeness in which they are engaged. For example, on this account, to know that the kettle is humid is not to be in a particular state of mind, but to perform a particular task with the statement that the kettle is humid. Wittgenstein sought to bypass the difficulty of definition by looking to the way "cognition" is used in natural languages. He saw knowledge as a case of a family resemblance. Following this idea, "knowledge" has been reconstructed every bit a cluster concept that points out relevant features but that is not adequately captured by any definition.^[9]

Self-cognition

"Self-knowledge" usually refers to a person's noesis of their own sensations, thoughts, behavior, and other mental states.^[10] A number of questions regarding self-knowledge have been the subject area of extensive debates in philosophy, including whether self-knowledge differs from other types of cognition, whether we have privileged self-cognition compared to knowledge of other minds, and the nature of our acquaintance with ourselves.^[10] David Hume expressed skepticism well-nigh whether we could ever accept self-knowledge over and higher up our immediate awareness of a "bundle of perceptions", which was part of his broader skepticism about personal identity.^[10]

The value of knowledge

It is more often than not assumed that noesis is more valuable than mere true belief. If and so, what is the caption? A formulation of the value trouble in epistemology starting time occurs in Plato'southward Meno. Socrates points out to Meno that a homo who knew the way to Larissa could lead others at that place correctly. But then, too, could a man who had true beliefs well-nigh how to get there, fifty-fifty if he had non gone in that location or had any knowledge of Larissa. Socrates says that it seems that both knowledge and true opinion can guide action. Meno then wonders why knowledge is valued more than true belief and why knowledge and truthful conventionalities are unlike. Socrates responds that knowledge is more than valuable than mere true belief because it is tethered or justified. Justification, or working out the reason for a true belief, locks downwardly true belief.^[xi]

The problem is to identify what (if anything) makes knowledge more than valuable than mere truthful conventionalities, or that makes knowledge more valuable than a mere minimal conjunction of its components, such equally justification, safety, sensitivity, statistical likelihood, and anti-Gettier conditions, on a item analysis of cognition that conceives of knowledge equally divided into components (to which noesis-beginning epistemological theories, which posit knowledge as central, are notable exceptions).^[12] The value problem re-emerged in the philosophical literature on epistemology in the twenty-first century following the ascent of virtue epistemology in the 1980s, partly because of the obvious link to the concept of value in ethics.^[xiii]

In contemporary philosophy, epistemologists including Ernest Sosa, John Greco, Jonathan Kvanvig,^[14] Linda Zagzebski, and Duncan Pritchard have dedicated virtue epistemology as a solution to the value problem. They argue that epistemology should also evaluate the "backdrop" of people as epistemic agents (i.e. intellectual virtues), rather than but the properties of propositions and propositional mental attitudes.

Scientific knowledge

The development of the scientific method has made a pregnant contribution to how cognition of the physical globe and its phenomena is acquired.^[15] To be termed scientific, a method of research must be based on gathering appreciable and measurable show subject to specific principles of reasoning and experimentation.^[16] The scientific method consists of the collection of data through ascertainment and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses.^[17] Science, and the nature of scientific knowledge have besides become the subject area of philosophy. Equally science itself has developed, scientific knowledge now includes a broader usage^[18] in the soft sciences such equally biology and the social sciences – discussed elsewhere equally meta-epistemology, or genetic epistemology, and to some extent related to "theory of cognitive development". Note that "epistemology" is the study of knowledge and how it is acquired. Scientific discipline is "the process used everyday to logically consummate thoughts through inference of facts determined by calculated experiments." Sir Francis Bacon was critical in the historical development of the scientific method; his works established and popularized an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry. His aphorism, "knowledge is power", is constitute in the Meditations Sacrae (1597).^[xix]

Until recent times, at least in the Western tradition, information technology was but taken for granted that knowledge was something possessed only past humans – and probably adult humans at that. Sometimes the notion might stretch to Society-as-such, every bit in (e. g.) "the knowledge possessed by the Coptic civilisation" (equally opposed to its individual members), merely that was not bodacious either. Nor was it usual to consider unconscious knowledge in any systematic way until this approach was popularized past Freud.^[20]

Situated noesis

"Situated knowledges" redirects hither. For the Donna Haraway essay, see Situated Knowledges.

Situated knowledge is knowledge specific to a particular situation. It was used by Donna Haraway as an extension of the feminist approaches of "successor science" suggested by Sandra Harding, ane which "offers a more acceptable, richer, better account of a world, in order to live in it well and in critical, reflexive relation to our own also as others' practices of domination and the unequal parts of privilege and oppression that makes up all positions."^[21] This situation partially transforms science into a narrative, which Arturo Escobar explains as, "neither fictions nor supposed facts." This narrative of state of affairs is historical textures woven of fact and fiction, and as Escobar explains farther, "even the most neutral scientific domains are narratives in this sense," insisting that rather than a purpose dismissing science every bit a trivial matter of contingency, "information technology is to treat (this narrative) in the most serious way, without succumbing to its mystification as 'the truth' or to the ironic skepticism mutual to many critiques."^[22]

Haraway's argument stems from the limitations of the human being perception, besides equally the overemphasis of the sense of vision in scientific discipline. According to Haraway, vision in scientific discipline has been, "used to signify a leap out of the marked body and into a conquering gaze from nowhere." This is the "gaze that mythically inscribes all the marked bodies, that makes the unmarked category claim the ability to see and not exist seen, to represent while escaping representation."^[21] This causes a limitation of views in the position of science itself equally a potential histrion in the cosmos of cognition, resulting in a position of "pocket-sized witness". This is what Haraway terms a "god trick", or the aforementioned representation while escaping representation.^[23] In guild to avoid this, "Haraway perpetuates a tradition of thought which emphasizes the importance of the subject in terms of both ethical and political accountability".^[24]

Some methods of generating knowledge, such every bit trial and error, or learning from experience, tend to create highly situational cognition. Situational knowledge is often embedded in language, civilization, or traditions. This integration of situational noesis is an allusion to the community, and its attempts at collecting subjective perspectives into an embodiment "of views from somewhere."^[21] Noesis is also said to exist related to the capacity of acknowledgement in human beings.^[25]

Even though Haraway's arguments are largely based on feminist studies,^[21] this idea of different worlds, as well every bit the skeptic opinion of situated cognition is nowadays in the main arguments of mail service-structuralism. Fundamentally, both fence the contingency of knowledge on the presence of history; ability, and geography, equally well as the rejection of universal rules or laws or elementary structures; and the idea of power as an inherited trait of objectification.^[26]

Partial knowledge

One discipline of epistemology focuses on partial noesis. In most cases, it is not possible to understand an information domain exhaustively; our cognition is ever incomplete or partial. Almost existent bug take to be solved past taking advantage of a partial understanding of the problem context and problem data, unlike the typical math bug i might solve at school, where all information is given and one is given a consummate agreement of formulas necessary to solve them (False consensus effect).

This thought is also present in the concept of bounded rationality which assumes that in real-life situations people often accept a express amount of information and make decisions appropriately.

Religious concepts of knowledge

Christianity

In many expressions of Christianity, such as Catholicism^[27] and Anglicanism,^[28] cognition is i of the vii gifts of the Holy Spirit.

"The knowledge that comes from the Holy Spirit, still, is not limited to human knowledge; it is a special gift, which leads united states of america to grasp, through creation, the greatness and love of God and his profound human relationship with every creature." (Pope Francis, papal audition May 21, 2014)^[29]

Gnosticism

In Gnostic beliefs, anybody is said to possess a piece of the highest good or Ultimate God deep within themselves that had fallen from the spiritual world into the bodies of humans, sometimes called a divine spark. It is trapped in their textile bodies created past the inferior God or Demiurge unless secret cognition from the outside universe called gnosis is achieved. The 1 who brings such cognition is considered the savior or redeemer.^[30]

Hinduism

विद्या दान (Vidya Daan) i.e. noesis sharing is a major part of Daan, a tenet of all Dharmic Religions.^[31] Hindu Scriptures present two kinds of noesis, Paroksh Gyan and Prataksh Gyan. Paroksh Gyan (as well spelled Paroksha-Jnana) is secondhand noesis: knowledge obtained from books, hearsay, etc. Pratyaksh Gyan (also spelled Pratyaksha-Jnana) is the knowledge borne of direct feel, i.e., knowledge that 1 discovers for oneself.^[32] Jnana yoga ("path of cognition") is one of 3 chief types of yoga expounded by Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita. (It is compared and contrasted with Bhakti Yoga and Karma yoga.)

Islam

In Islam, noesis (Arabic: علم, ʿilm) is given great significance. "The Knowing" (al-ʿAlīm) is one of the 99 names reflecting singled-out attributes of God. The Qur'an asserts that knowledge comes from God (2:239) and various hadith encourage the acquisition of knowledge. Muhammad is reported to have said "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" and "Verily the men of noesis are the inheritors of the prophets". Islamic scholars, theologians and jurists are ofttimes given the title alim, pregnant "knowledgeble".^[33]

Judaism

In Jewish tradition, knowledge (Hebrew: דעת da'ath) is considered 1 of the nearly valuable traits a person can acquire. Observant Jews recite three times a day in the Amidah "Favor u.s.a. with knowledge, agreement and discretion that come up from you. Exalted are you, Existent-One, the gracious giver of knowledge." The Tanakh states, "A wise man gains power, and a man of noesis maintains ability", and "knowledge is chosen higher up gold".

The Old Testament's tree of the knowledge of adept and evil contained the knowledge that separated Man from God: "And the LORD God said, Behold, the man is become every bit 1 of united states of america, to know practiced and evil..." (Genesis 3:22)

See also

• Omniscience
• Outline of knowledge – guide to the subject area of knowledge presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics.
• Outline of human intelligence - listing of subtopics in tree construction
• Analytic-synthetic stardom
• Decolonization of knowledge
• Desacralization of knowledge
• Descriptive knowledge
• Epistemic modal logic
• Gnosticism
• Inductive inference
• Anterior probability
• Intelligence
• Knowledge transfer
• Metaknowledge
• Procedural knowledge
• Rushda
• Gild for the Diffusion of Useful Cognition

References

1. ^ "knowledge: definition of noesis in Oxford dictionary (American English) (US)". oxforddictionaries.com. Archived from the original on xiv July 2010.
2. ^ Steup, Matthias; Neta, Ram (2020), "Epistemology", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2020 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford Academy, retrieved xix Nov 2021
3. ^ Paul Boghossian (2007), Fearfulness of Cognition: Against relativism and constructivism, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN978-0199230419 , Affiliate vii, pp. 95–101.
4. ^ "The Analysis of Knowledge". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Retrieved 13 June 2020.
5. ^ Steup, Matthias; Neta, Ram (2020), "Epistemology", in Zalta, Edward Northward. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2020 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved xix November 2021
6. ^ In Plato'south Theaetetus, Socrates and Theaetetus discuss three definitions of knowledge: noesis as nothing simply perception, knowledge as true judgment, and, finally, cognition as a true judgment with an account. Each of these definitions is shown to be unsatisfactory.
7. ^ Kirkham, Richard 50. (October 1984). "Does the Gettier Problem Rest on a Mistake?". Mind. New Series. 93 (372): 501–513. doi:10.1093/mind/XCIII.372.501. JSTOR 2254258. jstor (subscription required)
8. ^ Ludwig Wittgenstein, On Certainty, remark 42
9. ^ Gottschalk-Mazouz, N. (2008): "Internet and the catamenia of cognition," in: Hrachovec, H.; Pichler, A. (Hg.): Philosophy of the Information Lodge. Proceedings of the thirty. International Ludwig Wittgenstein Symposium Kirchberg am Wechsel, Austria 2007. Volume two, Frankfurt, Paris, Lancaster, New Brunswik: Ontos, Southward. 215–232. "Archived re-create" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 May 2015. Retrieved 24 May 2015. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
10. ^ ^{a b c} "Self-Noesis". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Retrieved 16 July 2020.
11. ^ Plato (2002). Five Dialogues. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Pub. Co. pp. 89–90, 97b–98a. ISBN978-0-87220-633-5.
12. ^ Pritchard, Duncan; Turri, John. "The Value of Noesis". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Retrieved 24 Feb 2016.
13. ^ Pritchard, Duncan (Apr 2007). "Recent Piece of work on Epistemic Value". American Philosophical Quarterly. 44 (2): 85–110. JSTOR 20464361.
14. ^ Kvanvig, Jonathan L. (2003). The Value of Knowledge and the Pursuit of Understanding. Cambridge Academy Press. ISBN9781139442282. ^{[ folio needed ]}
15. ^ "Science – Definition of scientific discipline past Merriam-Webster". merriam-webster.com.
16. ^ "[4] Rules for the study of natural philosophy", Newton 1999, pp. 794–796 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFNewton1999 (help), from the General Scholium, which follows Book 3, The System of the Globe.
17. ^ scientific method, Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
18. ^ Wilson, Timothy D. (12 July 2012). "Stop bullying the 'soft' sciences". Los Angeles Times.
19. ^ "Sir Francis Salary – Quotationspage.com". Retrieved 8 July 2009.
20. ^ In that location is quite a practiced example for this exclusive specialization used by philosophers, in that information technology allows for in-depth report of logic-procedures and other abstractions which are not found elsewhere. However, this may lead to issues whenever the topic spills over into those excluded domains – east. one thousand. when Kant (post-obit Newton) dismissed Space and Time as axiomatically "transcendental" and "a priori" – a claim later disproved by Piaget'south clinical studies. It also seems likely that the vexed problem of "infinite regress" can be largely (but not completely) solved by proper attention to how unconscious concepts are actually developed, both during infantile learning and as inherited "pseudo-transcendentals" inherited from the trial-and-error of previous generations. Run into also "Tacit knowledge".
    • Piaget, J., and B.Inhelder (1927/1969). The child's conception of fourth dimension. Routledge & Kegan Paul: London.
    • Piaget, J., and B. Inhelder (1948/1956). The child's formulation of infinite. Routledge & Kegan Paul: London.
21. ^ ^{a b c d} "Situated Knowledges: The Scientific discipline Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective". Haraway, Donna. Feminist Studies Vol. fourteen, No. iii. pp. 575–599. 1988.
22. ^ "Introduction: Development and the Anthropology of Modernity". Escobar, Arturo. Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the 3rd Earth.
23. ^ Chapter 1. Haraway, Donna. Modest_Witness@Second_Millennium. FemaleMan© Meets_OncoMouse2. Feminism and Technoscience. 1997.
24. ^ Braidotti, Rosi (2006). "Posthuman, All Also Homo". Theory, Culture & Society. 23 (7–8): 197–208. doi:10.1177/0263276406069232.
25. ^ Stanley Cavell, "Knowing and Acknowledging", Must We Mean What We Say? (Cambridge University Press, 2002), 238–266.
26. ^ "The Subject field and Power". Foucault, Michel. Critical Enquiry Volume 9, No. 4. pp. 777–795. 1982
27. ^ "Office 3, No. 1831". Catechism of the Catholic Church. Archived from the original on four May 2007. Retrieved 20 April 2007.
28. ^ "Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit", An Episcopal Dictionary of the Church
29. ^ "The gifts of the Holy Spirit open us to divine inspirations", Catholic News Service, September ten, 2020
30. ^ Denova, Rebecca (nine April 2021). "Gnosticism". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved six February 2022.
31. ^ "विद्या दान ही सबसे बडा दान : विहिप – Vishva Hindu Parishad – Official Website". vhp.org. Archived from the original on 20 Baronial 2011.
32. ^ Swami Krishnananda. "Chapter vii". The Philosophy of the Panchadasi. The Divine Life Society. Retrieved 5 July 2008.
33. ^ "Alim". Lexico. Oxford. Retrieved xiii March 2021.

External links

• Knowledge at PhilPapers
• "Knowledge". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "The Value of Knowledge". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Zalta, Edward Due north. (ed.). "The Assay of Noesis". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Cognition by Associate vs. Description". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Knowledge at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge

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